1. Ray Harwood's Ishi Essay: By Ray Harwood, Dec. 2001
A man named Man, a man named Ishi. Flintknapping is a part of the
world lived in by a very few, but at one time it was part of
everyone's world to some degree. The man named Ishi was at the end of
that time and the start of this one. It was early in the morning,
just the break of dawn, August 9, 1911, some miles south of Red
Bluff, California, an exhausted and fearful man was found in the
stable of a slaughter house. It was a middle aged American Indian man
whom came in from the woods, he was taken off to the jail at
Oroville. Sheriff J.B. W Webbe, who was the one who figured out Mr.
Ishi was a "wild" Indian and locked him up in a cell for the insane,
for Ishi's protection more than anything. Curiosity brought both
locals and outsiders from miles away to see was described as a "wild
man". Local Indians and "half breeds" came in and attempted to
communicate with Ishi, but to no avail. He was the last human on
earth that spoke his language. He spoke no English, he was starved
and his black hair was burned off short as he was in morning. The man
Ishi, the last of the Yahi. The Yahi, a small branch of the Yana,
were situated in northern California. Ishi lived in the Mill Creek in
the foothills of Mount Lassen, east of the Sacramento River and south
of the Pit River.
Fortunately for us Ishi was a master flintknapper and he still
retained all the knowledge and skill from living a life as his
tribe's flintknapping expert. The points Ishi knapped are so
delicate, thin and well flaked, they far surpass nearly all points
found in archaeological contexts and collections from prehistory.
Ishi has a point style named after him, as well as a specific type of
flintknapping tool. Ishi had lived his life in the wilderness, his
tribe had been wiped out by murderous miners and hunters, Ishi lived
alone - isolated. The story of Ishi's capture became headline news.
One Two of the readers happened to be Professors Kroeber and
Waterman, anthropologists at the University of California. The two
men took an instant interest, as they had gone on an expedition
looking for Ishi's people 3 years earlier as some surveyors had
happened upon their camp and reported their discovery. It was this
discovery that brought the demise of Ishi's people as the surveyors
had stolen the Indians' winter supplies as trophies and the Indians
did not make it through the winter. Years before the surveyor
incodent incident, Indian killers had attacked the tribe of peaceful
Indians slaughtering men women and children, one killer switched to
his pistol as his riffle was "tearing up the babies too much." You
can see why Ishi feared white people, he thought he would surely be
executed.
Since Ishi's language was extinct, there was no communication withhim
with him. It was very discouraging for Ishi and the white men. Finally
Waterman broke through with a few Yana words he had found. Ishi went
and lived with Kroeber and Watererman at the museum, Ishi would give
flintknapping demonstrations every Sunday to crowds of interested
onlookers, he also sold his handiwork. On his time off from
demonstrations and ethnographic data collecting, Ishi went to the
near by hospital and made friends with Dr. Saxton T. Pope, whom was
amazed at Ishi's skill as a woodsman and archer. Pope and Ishi went
on many trips into the wilderness and Ishi shared his bow making and
flintknapping secrets with his new friend. Ishi died at noon, March
25th, 1916. He told his friend Pope at the end "you stay, I go". It
was Yahi tradition that the body be buried whole so it could make the
trip to the land of the dead, but before Kroeber could do anything
about it Ishi's body was autopsied and cremated and his brain cut out
and sent to the Smithsonian. California Indians have been trying to
gain Ishi's remains for burial but have been largely unsuccessful as
no Yahi decedents descendants survive. Just within the last several
months, however, a turn of events have taken place and it appears
Ishi's remains have been returned to his beloved Deer Creek for a
final rest.
The Ishi points, some collected by Jeb Taylor and Charlie Shewie have
great interest
. Here is the Story of Chalrie's collection:
The accusition: accession (interview with a collector):
1. It was the summer of 1967, "Haiti Ashberry", California,
an odd place to find Charlie Shewey- in the hart of
hippie heaven. He had read the Kroeber book on Ishi
and he was walking the hallowed ground of knapping
history. There he was in Golden gate park. Gone was
the Hospital where Pope and Ishi had spent hours
talking archery, the Museum where Ishi lived -gone.
The smell of the sea and the sound of the breeze was
all that remained. There in the distance a lone
figure (the only human in a sea of hippies) -a cop.
Charlie asked the cop where Ishi's collection may be,
the cop replied " the University at Berkley". (to be
continued...)
2....well it was still 1967 and Charlie Shewey is still
visiting there at the University at Berkley. Charlie
walking across the campus shoving hippies as he goes
finds the museum. Not one Ishi item was on display.
Charlie finds the Curator and asks about the Ishi
material. "No one cares about that Ishi Crap" says
the curator. Unable to get anywhere with the
curator-he does what any descent knapper would do
"lets step out-side you bastard!" As the curator goes
for the phone Charlie goes for the door. (to be continued...)
3. There he was headed for the door and mad as hell.
Charlie Shewey had been insulted by a jerk, groped by
hippies and he still hadn't seen what he came for-to
see the Ishi points. As luck would have it -justbefore Charlie got to
the handle of the museum exit
door, a young anthropologist stopped him. "I agree
about all the things you said to my boss, he is a
jerk, come back tomorrow-it is my day off, I can show
you the basement that has the entire Ishi collection.
We can spend the entire day looking at the stuff. (to
be continued...)
So as I was saying; Charlie Shewey heading for the
Museum exit in the summer of 1967...So the
anthropologist caught him on the way out.
The next day Charlie has the motel clerk ring his
room early, the night filled with half sleep dreams of
the Ishi treasure that sits in the museum basement.
Ishi too waits with anticipation, no one has cared
about his treasure for years - he must of watched from
around the fire in the spirit world. OOPS got
spiritual on my buttox...anyway Charlie does the 3 S's
gets dressed for the day and gets to the museum with
the breaking sun. |
Anyway Charlie Shewey walks up to the Museum door and
the young anthropologist opens the door from the
inside, come on in. As they walk through the museum
their foot steps echo through the empty corridors.
They get to a door and the anthro dude pulls out a wad
of keys and sorts through them. He unlocks the
basement door and switches on the lights. The lights
are still flickering as the two men enter the treasure
chamber. "Well what do you want to see first ? Fire
kit, Fish baskets, bow and arrows, clothes what? " I'd
kind of like to see his points first" says Charlie
Shewey. The two walk down the thin passage ways of the
basement - row upon row of thin wooden drawers to the
right and to the left. Suddenly they stop "here it is"
The anthro dude pulls open one of the lower wooden
drawers and with the smell of moth balls he pulls out
several old wooden cigar boxes and laid them down in
front of Charlie, he could not speak. "Looks to be
about 300 here" says the anthro dude.
The anthro dude sets out for cigar boxes out onto the
cold concrete floor of the museum basement. The
anthro dude say to Charlie Shewey "you stay and I'll
go- and Finnish my work" funny that is what Ishi said to
Pope when Ishi died' you stay I'll go". Charlie
nervously opened the first of the 4 cigar boxes. It
was like when they first opened King Tut's tomb. As
the box squeaked open hundreds of shinny and sharp
Ishi points sparkled like jules. 2 to 3 inches,
lenticular cross sections, perfect-dainty-teardrop
notching. All the colors of the rainbow- blue from
Milk of Magnesia bottles, amber from whiskey bottles,
green from whine bottles, white from milk glass
plates, and black from obsidian. Straight blades edge,
sharp functional margins, every flake scar a thought
from Ishi's mind. Each a work of art. Here they were
what Charlie Shewey had dreamed about, it was Ishi's
treasure- complete with ink number carefully applied
by Kroeber and or Pope so many years and dreams ago
--- When Charlie returned he inspected all of Ishi's
things ½ dozen excellently made Juniper bows,
arrows, fishing nets, rabbit nets, deer snares- everysingle thing he
made. After this Charlie was allowed
to spend a few more hours with the Ishi points.
Charlie states that he feels Ishi was striving for 1
inch wide, 3 inches long, notch ¼ up from the base, tear drop
notching and lenticular
x-section..also
strait triangular blade edge. It was getting late so
when the anthro-dude came over they decided it was
time to leave. Charlie reluctantly agreed- since he
took the bus from his motel he figured he best be
getting back--although the hippies didn't pose much
of a threat. He asked the anthro-dude if there was
something he could do for him for being so nice. The
anthro dude states to Charlie that a fluted point
would be nice...Charlie stated that those are a bit
hard to come by- but I could make you a damn nice one.
The anthro dude said that would be great. Charlie
made the anthro dude a very nice chalcedony folsom
point and took bee's wax and stuck the flutes back
in place so the students could see the point both
fluted and
The next morning Charlie got up and took the bus
inland to Stockton, California in the Central Valley
(not far from Bakersfield). There in Stockton was a
museum called "The Ishi Museum" it had several dozend
of Ishi's points as well as a wine bottle ulu crafted
by Ishi. After an enjoyable time at the museum
Charlie looked around Stockton a while and then took
the bus back to the "Bay Area". On the bus back
Charlie reflected on his trip to Kroeber hall the day
before and todays visit to the Ishi museum. Charlie
had read Saxton Popes book on archery in 1925 and Ishi
had been Charlie's hero ever since. By the way-
Popes bow was a Shortened bush type British long bow. You archery
dudes my correct me
anytime!...Charlie was
working for Payway Feed Company at this time as their
pilot so he was fortunate to have taken the Payway
employs on this vacation. It was time to fly them
back home. If it were not for this trip Ishi's stuff
may have been buried a lot longer and the 5 Ishi
movies may never have been made..THE END Ray H.
Special thanks to Charlie Shewey for the many hours of
interview he gave me while doing this and other research!
Flintknapping Ishi style:
Flintknapping today is a part of the world lived in by a very few,
but at one time it was part of everyone's world to some degree. The
transition of these worlds was paved with horror and death. The man
named Ishi was at the end of that time and the start of this time.
Like Alice through the looking glass Ishi entered a new and strange
world, from his wilderness life to one with foolish devices and white
people running about like mad rodents. The new world was a dream like
circus, but a dream come true and a deliverance from the nightmare of
solitude. It was considered of the utmost importance not to
understate the importance of Ishi's background, the dark horror that
was the American holocaust. (see Kroeber 1961, Burrill 1990, Harwood,
R. 1999 , Harwood, J. 2000, Shackley 1996) The darkest hour is
justbefore the dawn and it was just the break of dawn, on a hot August
night, the 9th, of August 1911, some miles south of Red Bluff,
California, a down trodden, exhausted and fearful man was found in
the stable of the Charles Ward Slaughterhouse on Oro-Quincy Road .
The story ends with Ishi's lifeless brain being carved out of his
skull and sent to the Smithsonian. The ashes placed in a small black
jar. Ishi's remains have been repatriated under the provisions of the
National Museum of the American Indian Act of 1989, as amended, 20
U.S.C. 80q et seq. (see Rockafeller, 1999)
Today Ishi is well known for the arrowhead named after him, a
stylized side notch type, he commonly knapped at his museum home, In
this case, Ishi's short five-year stay at the Museum of Anthropology,
University of California, a legend born of an odessy that began
August the 9th, of August 1911 ending on Ishi's death March 25, 1916.
According to Nelson (1916) . Nothing gave Ishi, and the visiting
public, as much interest and satisfaction as his arrowhead chipping.
The Ishi Point type discussed, he made several varieties, is as
follows: The classic Ishi point is best known for its symmetrical
tear drop notches in the lower margin of the point. The notch enters
at less than a thirty-second on an inch at the entry point then
expands to an eighth of an inch wide or more in the body of the
point. The deep teardrop notches extend three eighths to a quarter of
an inch deep into the face of the basal region. This gives the neck
area, between the notches, a similar diameter of the prospective
arrow shaft creating the perfect haft.
The classic Ishi point has a blade edge that is either straight or
incurvate. The base is concave. The point has sharp angular ears
below the characteristic notches. The point has a triangular form
giving the point the overall delicate but deadly outline. The point
has diffuse diamond cross-section created by a medial ridge. Ishi
points have closed tear drop notches.
The medial section of the Ishi point has subtle oblique flaking
patterns, more pronounced on the elongated specimens. Oblique or
parallel flaking is done, according to Errett Callahan, to create an
extremely sharp edge, as oblique edges do not have delta flakes and
therefore less final retouch is necessary and the blade edge is razor
sharp. The blade edge on an Ishi point is usually incurvate, this a
result of the final pass of oblique medial flakes. The clear glass
material gives the point an ice crystal look, that combined with its'
oblique parallel pattern flakes and near perfect symmetry, transcends
all description of beauty. Ishi collector Charlie Shewey, relayed to
me that the last authentic Ishi point that sold at auction sold for a
cool $27,000.00.
To demonstrate the diversity of Ishi's points and existing specimen
data of Ishi's points(see Shackley , 1991, 1994, , 1996, 2000 ).
Unfortunately Ishi gave away and sold many of his points while doing
his demonstrations. But fortunately there are 120 specimens in
museums and 4 in private collections, some of which are now available
as castings. The "classic Glass Ishi" is an ornate Desert Side Notch,
and the style reflected in this paper, the totals of these specimens
is 49 and another 8 DSN with serrated edges, certainly not what
mostof most of us see in our minds eye as a true "Ishi" yet he made
them. 17 of
the specimens are corner notched, expanding stem points, with another
5 of these being the same form but serrated - again = certainly not
what most of us see in our minds eye as a true "Ishi" yet he made
them. 10 of the Ishi specimens are of the cottonwood triangular -
concave base-again = certainly not what most of us see in our minds
eye as a true "Ishi" yet he made them. 18 are basal notched with
contracting stem, 6 more are basal notched with contracting stem but
serrated-again = certainly not what most of us see in our minds eye
as a true "Ishi" yet he made them. Of the "classic Ishi" is a ornate
Desert Side Notch the bulk were made after , and during, 1911 at the
museum 49 in the museum collections, 4 in private collections for a
total of 53, 2 were excavated at Payne's Cave, TEH193 (see Shackley ,
1991, 1994, , 1996, 2000 ), 3 at Kingsley Cave, TEH-1, (again see
Shackley , 1991, 1994, , 1996, 2000 ). For a grant total of 53
classic Ishi points . The problem with crosstabulation for
statistical data is this, what if Ishi (or Kroeber) simply held on to
his best points, or his worst? this would have set a majority of "non
classic Ishi's into the public giveaways and left a disproportionate
number of the classic style in our data base. We can sit and think
were the cottonwoods preforms for "classic Ishi's?", saving preforms
for opportune times of concentration are best for advance notching.
and so on... After looking at all the Ishi's I see none that were not
very well crafted, despite the stage of reduction/production. The
medial oblique -parallel flaking on prepared platforms set and
abraded to perfection. Ishi's point style and form varied from one
setting to the next, his environment, necessity or public opinion
seems to have played a role in the point type he crafted at any one
time.
Many projectile points have a diagnostic element that may, or may
not, earmark some chronological period, region or cultural tradition.
A class of artifact sharing generalized, definable attributes is
known as a "type", the type may then intern be part of a larger
tradition. Within each tradition there are often several distinct
subtraditions. Subtraditions are most often characterized by
stylistic variations.
Projectile point typology has been a controversial subject, best
summarized by John C. Whitaker (1994) "Archaeologists are
occasionally accused , even today, of a pathological desire to
classify everything into neat little pigeonholes. While
classification can be carried to absurd extremes, there are a number
of good reasons why we are interested in typology, studying and
establishing schemes for classifying objects and phenomena." This
being established The Ishi point being discussed is actually a hybrid
of a classic western point type the Desert Side Notch Point, referred
to most often as the "Redding Subtype", mean weight = 2.99+- 0.98,
basal width/max. width ratio = 1.00 +- (Shackley, 2001). The Desert
Side Notch point is best known for its characteristic Isosceles
triangular, basic shape with side notches and concave base. The blade
edge is straight while other California area side notched points have
an excurvate blade edge. The average width to thickness ratio for
this point is 5/1. Some specimens have some basal grinding for the
haft. The average length of the Desert Side Notch is 2 to 4.5 cm.
Thecarbon 14 dates for this series suggest that it appeared sometime
after 1,100 A.D. A.D. 1100 and continued into the Historic era. An
archaeologist named Lyton found a Desert Side Notch point in
association with the charred bones of a domestic cow at Hanging Rock
Shelter, Northwest Nevada, therefore indicating use by historic
Northern Paiute.
Smaller then the more stylized Ishi point, the Desert Side Notch
resembles the side notch Cahokia points from the Midwest and the Ishi
point resembles attributes of certain Basket Maker III points of
Colorado.
Not every man in the Yahi culture made and used arrowheads. Pope
(1913) stated that the flintknapping art was the special function of
the older and more skillful men. "Ishi seems to have been associated
with the medicine man of his tribe. Besides the usual customs, he
preserved many of the more highly developed arts and crafts of his
culture".
Kroeber's accounts (1961) of Ishi's practices collecting knapping
glass are quite vivid, and this particular passage captures the event
in detail: " Plate glass, brown glass from beer bottles and the blue
glass of "Milk of Magnesia bottles" were among Ishi's favorite lithic
materials. " As a final irony of the time of Ishi's concealment, Ishi
was cut off from trade to the north and south and Yana country had no
obsidian or flint. Painstakingly and silently, Ishi had visited the
length of Lassen Trail, every campsite of emigrant, hunter or camper,
up and down Deer Creek, and the cabin middens and ranch dumps of
whatever dwelling he could reach by light and return from by night,
combing them for the discarded bottles they were likely to contain.
Once back home, he shaped at his leisure, the pieces of glass into
his ammunition."
Glass knapping is more complex than it seems on first observance.
There are several techniques, some cultural and some based strictly
on the shape of the mass of glass to be reduced and subsequent unique
strategies that lend themselves strictly to shape of core materiel
(i.e.. Bottles, plate glass). The glass object, when collected, is
the basic core material.
The bottle is the first glass Ishi preform (Core ? )type I shall
discuss (see Nami, 1984 Harwood 1986, 2001) when choosing a suitable
bottle there are two attributes you should consider: first, the
bottom of the bottle glass should be as close to flat at possible, no
deep concavity. Secondly, the thickness of the glass should be enough
to allow a good amount of flake reduction, about 3/16 of an inch or
better, in the bottom's center. I have knapped a substantial number
of glass arrowheads, and I have found that the best bottles for the
reduction have only a slight basal concavity, the upper face of the
bottle bottom as a slight convexity and in the center it is nearly ¼
inch thick. According to Mark Moore (2000) "The methods used to
manufacture glass bottles at the turn of the last century were not
equal to the mechanized bottle-making innovations seen in the US
today, bottles bottoms in the older bottles were relatively thick
(better for knapping), compared to modern bottles".
The first step in the beer bottle knapping process is to detach the
only usable portion of the bottle, the bottom. The bottom is detached
with several diverse methods. The Ishi method is carried out with a
sandstone hammer stone, using one quick percussion impact downward at
a 45 degree angle just above the base.
Next, remove the vertical, jagged glass residue (Ishi method, see
also see Harwood 1986, 2001) with light taps with a small hammer
stone. Then abraid the margin with an abrasive stone. The next phase
involves the decortication, or cortex removal. The decortication
process renders the preform into a semi lenticulation in cross-
section. This process involves the setting up of striking or pressure
platforms with pressure and shearing. Platforms are important to
prevent premature flake termination, hinge fractures, and margin
collapse by crushing. Edge preparation and center plane alignment
remains of the utmost importance during the entire procedure, after
every sequence of flake removals this must be checked and corrected .
Both edge preparation and center plane manipulation can be easily and
quickly managed by the act of shearing (see Crabtree 1972, Callahan
1979, Harwood 1986, 2001 Whitaker 1994, Patten 1999). Discussing
platforms in pressure flaking terms is a precarious undertaking at
best, as there are so many variables. It can be basically summed up
as an angles, rt. angle ( 90 degrees) down to the most acute angle
(less than 90 degrees) 45 degrees usually being ideal that is used to
apply the down and inward force necessary to detach a predetermined
and predictable flake. . Platforms are often isolated, an isolated
platform is an apex or faceted surface raised up by reduction of
adjacent material. Patten (1999) concludes that isolation of a
platform ensures that force is applied exactly in the right place and
is also concentrated to cause fracture to start easily. The isolated
platform may also be referred to as a nipple or spur, depending on
the relative sharpness (again see Crabtree 1972, Callahan 1979,
Harwood 1986, 2001 Whitaker 1994, Patten 1999) .
Next, in the glass-lithic reduction continuum is decordication-
removing of the shinny service, and lenticualation- creating a
lenticular cross-section . This is done by make making use of and
creating new abraded platforms (isolated and or continuous) and
pressing off flakes . This method involves the abrading of the
preform (unfinished, unused form of the proposed artifact) margin,
platform preparation and basic shaping. The basic platform is created
with short flake pressed of the margin through a process known as
shearing, which is facilitated by running the edge of and antler or
bone, in a shearing motion, along the margin of the lithic preform.
The margin is then abraded with an abrasive stone or carborendum like
material. The abraiding of the platform edge remedies the fact that
untreated edges are to sharp to obtain proper bite. The actual
pressure method (see Crabtree 1972, Callahan 1979, Harwood 1986, 2001
Whitaker 1994, Patten 1999)) involves pressing off flakes, from the
prepared platform, using a deer antler tine. The pressure is forced
in at a 45% angle into the prepared platform on the margin of the
preform. In the case of Ishi the preform was held in the left hand,
protected by a thick leather pad, the antler pressure applied by the
right hand.
Staging the preforms:
I took Ishi's reduction stages and applied Dr. Errett Callahan's (
1979) biface staging methodologies for my experimental reduction and
manufacturing sequencing. Lithic reduction staging for bottle glass
projectile points. Aside from the classic staging documentation of
Callahan some most intriguing ethnohistoric and experimental data
comes from several sources discussed below.
Paul Schumacher (1877) documented actual calculated biface staging
observed among the stone workers of the Klamath River Yurok. Newcomer
(1971) identified reduction staging as it applied to aboriginal hand
ax manufacture. Muto (1971), though denying an actual distinct set of
rigid stages, did apply a sequence to the early stages of Clovis-like
bifaced artifacts. Sharock (1966) gave a five stages reduction
sequence to biface reduction sequencing. A stages sequence was
applied to bottle glass reduction by the author in 1983 and again in
1988. Nami adapted a variation of Callahan's staging to Argentine
lithic reduction in 1991. While the knapping sequence of the
traditional of lithic materials has been widely documented ( those
mentioned above to a lesser degree: Crabtree 1972 ,Callahan 1979.,
Whitaker, 1994 and Patten 1999 and others) , the study of glass
knapping technology has been, for the most part, restricted to a very
few (Harwood, 1983, 1988, 2001, Wellman and Ibarra 1978, 1988). Here
again I am further adapting the stage -sequencing theory to both
plate and bottle knapping strategies . According to Callahan biface
reduction is not a random and continual banging away at the edges,
but a structured reduction strategy, mindful of changing of width
thickness relationships and edge angles, this necessary to create a
predetermined form having proper features and attributes. This
structured thought process involves attaining stages within the
reduction continuum, I submit a similar scenario holds true for glass
knapping.
Bottle Glass Reduction Stages {Figure 10}
Stage 1 - Blank: Glass bottle of suitable form for the end product.
Unmodified, beyond vertical edge removal. Plano-convex with at least
3/16 inch thickness. Detachment achieved with percussion methodology.
Stage 2 - Rough out: Through percussion methodologies a rough outline
in created through the removal of excess raw material. Large
decordication flakes create a semi-lenticular cross-section. Flakes
are exacuted form from both faces of the material , but focus on the
outer zone. The roughly centered, bi-convex edge should be neither
too sharp nor too blunt (ideally between 55-75 degrees). Plano-
convexity deminished, diminished with flakes removed from the ventral
side first.
Stage 3 - Primary Preform; Symmetrical handaxe-like outline,
lenticular cross-section and straight/centered, bi-convex edge with
edge-angles falling between 40 - 60 degrees. Percussion methods are
set aside and " power stroke" pressure is used. An antler tine, thick
bone or wooden pressure flaked or dulled wire or untempered nail
wasused, was used, according to Callahan (1999) Ishi's flaker (Ishi
Stick) was a
piece of deer horn bound to a stick about a foot long A narrative of
Ishi's tools follows from Pope (1918) follows: "he used deer horn for
the heavier work, but while with us he chiefly employed a soft iron
rod three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter and eight inches long,
having a handle of padded cloth bound to it for a distance of sic six
Inches. The tool must be a substance that will dent slightly and thus
engage the sharp edge of obsidian." Callahan reflects (1999),
pressure flakers, Ishi sticks to be precise, must have a flexible
main shaft or handle , a rigid handle made for increased trauma and
shorter flakes. " It has been found that a somewhat flexible shaft of
the long composite tool provides an extra kick that will send those
flakes flying". A leather or hide pad covers the left palm.
Stage 4 -Secondary Preform; Asymmetrical outline with, lenticular
cross-sections and a straight and centered, bi-convex edge. Edge
angles should fall between 25 - 45 degrees. For Ishi, an Isosceles
triangle. A sharper pressure tool tip is needed here and both Ishi
switched to a mounted wire pressure tool for glass work. Variant
angles were selected for desired flake patterns, (i.e. parallel-
oblique flakes directed diagonally across the surface of the biface
preform).
Stage 5 - is the finished preform , final retouch, notching ,
serration or pattern flaking is employed at this stage depending on
the anticipated final product. This process was carried out with
either a wire, nail mounted tool.
According to Nelson (1916) Ishi preferred to use untempered or
detempered iron flakers and notching tools with shape round or chisel
shaped points. Ishi's tools are still in the museum of Anthropology,
University of California,
The plate glass {Figure 11}
glass plates , or glass plank is the second to be discussed. Plate
glass is a prized lithic raw material both for its shape and its
knapping quality. While bottle bottoms must be knapped with the plano-
convex attribute in the forefront of one's mind, the plate glass is
symmetrical is cross-section from Stage 1 - Blank) , the selection of
the raw material. obtaining the glass blank. For fully functional
projectile points and knives the material must have a thickness of at
least 3/16 of an inch, and ¼ inch is the preferred. After the plank
of plate glass has been trimmed or cut to a optimum shape and size,
through etching snapping , or bipolar splitting and shearing, the
edges are ground, but not rounded, (abraded) with an abrasive stone.
When the margin is white with abrasive scratches one can be sure no
slippage will occur while working the glass material. Again it must
be stressed, edge preparation and center plane alignment remains of
the utmost importance during the entire procedure, after every
sequence of flake removals this must be checked and corrected . Both
edge preparation and center plane manipulation can be easily and
quickly managed by the act of shearing .(see Crabtree 1972,
Callahan1979, Harwood 1986, 2001 Whitaker 1994, Patten 1999) .
At this time an alternate bevel around the circumference of the plank
is achieved, known as stage 2 (Rough out):in the process. Alternate
bevels are achieved by using pressure to remove short, stubby flakes,
alternately from the face of one edge and then flipping the plank
over and repeating the process, also known as turning the edge or
initial edging. The second bevel flake uses the declining edge of the
opposed flake as a platform for applied pressure and so on down the
margin. In this fashion the knapper is continually flipping the piece
from side to side as the bevel flakes are detached. (see alternate
flaking: Crabtree 1972, Callahan 1979, Harwood 1986, 2001 Whitaker
1994, Patten 1999) .
After the plank is fully alternately beveled, or turned, an
additional abrading is carried out to remove sharp brittle edges and
will cause crushing or splitting when heavy pressure is applied. Also
the abraded areas will need to hold the tip of the of the pressure
flaking tool long enough to detach a proper conchoidal thinning flake.
Welman and Ibarra (1988) gives a proper account of stage 3 (Primary
Preform) of plank knapping to achieve the initial bifacing
attribute; "Remove flakes, starting at the potential tip ( or distal
end). Remove the flakes from each apex in sequence (In this, the apex
is the isolated platform). . Try to have the flakes meet half way
across the preform (important to create the medial ridge). Flip the
preform over and repeat the flaking process." Between flake
detachments the intermittent or delta flake must be lightly removed.
Following the face decordication process, the margins must be sheared
into proper contour and the edges, primary thinning. The Ishi power
stroke involves the following technique. The glass or lithic piece
rests is held in the left hand supported on the left inner thigh. The
pressure is applied inward steadily until maximum force, supplied by
the thigh, then a bust of force from the right shoulder into a
outward energy with a twist of the body, the power stroke often works
well as a substitute from percussion flaking on glass, where some
forms of percussion cause to much trauma to the delicate material.
This method often causes injury to the knappers back, shoulder and
wrist muscles. The flake scar on the face of the preform resembles
percussion scares, especially when delivered to an isolated platform.
Stage 4 (Secondary Preform) involves the shaping and sharpening of
the point, what flintknapper, Joe Dabil describes as oyster shelling
as the deep contouring conchoidal flakes that give the contour and
sharp edge resemble sea shells, this is a secondary thinning strategy
that gives the reproduction an authentic "Ishi look". Varient angles
were selected for desired flake patterns, (i.e. parallel-oblique
flakes directed diagonally across the surface of the biface preform.
This also removes delta flakes. This stage also necks in the tip and
gives the preform the pointed attribute.
Stage 5 (finished preform) gives the work subtle refinements such as
edge trimming, notching serration, notching and so on. {Figure 12}
Phases of The Notch (a secondary staging, within the primary final
stage)
Stage 1: (prepetory) Carefully supporting the biface in a padded left
palm, Ishi was right handed" "Usuing point of tool methodology" and
a "less sharp tool" , a retouch tool, take a prepetory (guiding/
thinning) flake at the location of the proposed notch. Flip over,
carefully calculate position of first notch location and repeat. Then
lightly shear or abraded margin and leading edge (above and below
where the notch will begin) of prepatoy flake scar for strength, so
the notch won't blow out later in the process. According to Nelson
(1916) and Pope (1918), Ishi preferred to use untempered or
detempered iron flakers and notching tools with sharp round or chisel
shaped points. Ishi's tools are still in the museum of Anthropology,
University of California. It is important to note (Harwood 2000,
Paten )1999 for an ideal notching environment a thin preform is best.
At the end of this stage results obtained are notch locations have
been selected thinned and prepped for stage 2, entering.
Stage 2: (Entering) Carefully supporting the biface, especially
around the notch, reducing bending fractures in a padded left palm,
or in some cases on a leather pad on a flat surface (Titmus, 1985)
Using the "side of tool" methodology, with the flat ended tool, the
first of a series of alternate crescent flakes are "snapped"
Important to calculate centerline on each of the proceeding
detachments, the centerline platform must be below 50% . The tool
must be very sharp and thin. It is imperative that the centerline
platform of the notch not exceed ¼ of the margin centerline. The
centerline is your platform. The meat under the notch must stay thin,
if the platform rises the platform will crush and a slick wall will
present problematic scenarios. The inward and slightly downward
pressure and platform surface contact areas must not be extensive or
abrupt or end shock with snap off the base of the point or the notch
opening tang will blow off and open the closed end notch opening.
Blown open closed end notch openings and severed basal regions, from
end shock, are observed on several of the Ishi specimens. Notching
requires a steady hand and a steady build up of pressure with a
slight rocking motion, but a sliding in and down at release. Follow
this pattern and reach around under the center line at 75% when
obstacle mass impedes or binds the process, "slide away" methods to
abrade and prepare is sometime applied. Many knappers suggest the
notch should be made with two small flakes rather than one (see
Crabtree 1972, Callahan 1979, Harwood 2001, Whitaker 1994, Patten
1999) . This gives you a second chance should you crush a platform ,
At the end of this stage results obtained are notch locations have
been selected thinned and prepped, a deep and very thin notch has
been symmetrically achieved via the notch entering process, "closed
notch opening" intact.
Stage 3" (Tear dropping) Carefully supporting the biface, especially
around the notch, reducing bending fractures in a padded left
palm,Ishi was right handed, or in some cases on a leather pad on a
flat
surface (Titmus, 1985) "Using point of tool methodology," the sharp
tool is utilized. The tip is very carefully is inserted of the inner
end of the thin elongated notch. The tool must be very sharp and
thin. The downward pressure and platform surface contact areas must
not be extensive or the very crescent flake that you desire
will "fallow the lip,"("toilet bowl effect", follows the rim)
encompass the notch opening tang and blow open the closed end notch
opening. Blown open closed end notch openings and severed basal
regions, from "the toilet bowl effect", are observed on several of
the Ishi specimens. To give extra control and minimize the excess
endshock trauma, and the toilet bowl effect, Ishi would wrap the left
thumb in soft leather and punch the notch in perpendicular to the
margin of the biface or from the corner while holding the object
between the left thumb and index finger (Nelson 1916, Titmus, 1985,
Shackley 2001). Once the notch has been entered, the knapper must
keep the tool tip away from the notch opening tangs a slight touch
from the metallic tip will cause a micro end shock and blow open the
closed end notch opening. The preform is horizontal and the tool is
vertical, but this is often modified to various degrees given the
many variables encountered. The wrist is cocked downward and inward
on the inner left thigh in an uncomfortable posture. Obtaining
contact at, or below, the center line slidaway toward the tip
(proximal end) of the preform, utilize alternate flake sequence to
insure correct centerline platform placement and utilization.. Repeat
this procedure on the other side for a symmetrical notched point. At
the end of this stage results obtained are notch locations have been
selected thinned and prepped, a deep and very thin notch has been
symmetrically achieved via the notch entering process, and an
interior teardrop or "keyhole" notch has been achieved "closed notch
opening" intact.
Stage 4 (Final retouch) Final retouch is conducted after the notches
are intact, as this is time and labor intensive and often fails as
the result of base snap. After the notches are complete , using the
sharp tool, point of tool methodology is used to clean, clarify and
obtain final sharpening. The base is shallowed and shape clarified at
this time. The outside of the notch opening of is in need of
clarification of symmetry at the end of this stage results obtained
are notch locations have been selected thinned and prepped, a deep
and very thin notch has been symmetrically achieved via the notch
entering process, and an interior teardrop or "keyhole" notch has
been achieved "closed notch opening" intact and the point is finished.
Other Points of glass: Most lithic artifacts in America came from
weapons used prior to the arrival of the bow and arrow. In Australia
there was no arrival of the bow and arrow. On each continent the vast
majority of lithic projectile points were that of atlatl dart or
spear points. This is not true however with the glass projectile
points. In most of America the bow had fully replaced the altatl
atlatl technology . A projectile point is principally a devise used
to kill
by introducing the tip, carried by a shaft into the flesh of theprey.
The prey. However, in Australia, and with Ishi at the Museum, the
glass
points were quite often a trade item or collectable anomaly rather
than an actual field projectile point. There are other, less
documented, studies such as Dr. Hugo Nami's (1984) report on the
proto-historic use of glass in projectile point manufacture by the
Ona Indians of Tierra Del Fuego at least as late as 1910, the Bushmen
of Africa have been knapping manufactured glass for 250 years, and
the excavations of late show glass knapping technology among warriors
of the Great Planes and the African slaves of the deep south.
Ishi's friend Dr. Saxton Pope wrote this of Ishi when he died; "He
closes a chapter in history. He looked upon us as sophisticated
children, smart, but not wise....He knew nature which is always true.
His were the qualities of character that last forever. He was kind;
he had courage and self-restraint, and though all had been taken from
him, there was not bitterness in his heart. His soul was that of a
child, his mind that of a philosopher."
It seemed strange to me that Ishi's methods and way of posture and so
similar to most western modern knappers, not the southern table top
pressure, until I thought again of Crabtree, he worker with the
points - his fingerprints grace the cortex along with Kroeber's, -
Pope's, Nelson's and Shakley's.
Letter to Jeb Tayor and Steven Shakley:
IMPORTANT ISHI LITHICS DISCOVERY
I have been doing some knapping and contimplating the Ishi lithics
typology varience. What I have found, through intensive replication
of the various lithic forms that have been attributed Ishi, is that
vast variance in knapping style and form from the side notch in
contrast to the elongated glass points can be substantiated with the
addition to the knapping kit of one simple implement, the glass
cutter. This gives a more regular and predictable preform that during
the methodical process of pressure biface reduction process a
systematic and predictable set of stages lead to a slender well
formed final product, which is the elongated Ishi point.
The points made before the
addition of this implement were notably unstandard in comparison. I
feel the glass cutter was
nonaboriginal so, therefore was not selected for display or curation
at the museum. Ray Harwood
NEWSLETTER ARTICLE:
The man who sold to Hippies. I don't know if someone bought Joes
points and sold them to someone and they did a switch. I am thinking
perhaps yes and perhaps no. Yet is an interesting concept. Joe Dabil,
Joe had become a California legend by the late 1960s and had the nick
name of "Indian Joe", this name given to him by the prominent
archaeologists of the day. Joe says he learned his
style by trail and error using books with Ishi points as a
pattern,same for the knapping tools. His notching style
comes a great deal from Errett. Joe could make fire in of minutes
with a natural yucca file board and mule fat
stick. Joe was also a master of the Ishi style flintknapping
methodology. I first came to here about him in about
1969 and then in the 70s, he gave demos on Catalina Island for
Archaeologists and movie people. His points were often seen for sale
for $3.50 up and down the central to northern California coastal
towns, these populated by thousands of hippies. I remember buying one
in a hippie shop in Pismo Beech in 1976. The hippie lady at the
counter said I could meet the knapper, but like as ass I sais "naw
it's OK. I did end up meeting him 8 years later, in 1984, at CSUN.
Joe's Ishi points of both glass and obsidian were each an impressive
work of art. Ray and Joe became friends and Ray began to study Joe's
flintknapping methods.
Joe Dabil had learned the arts of wilderness
survival hands on. Joe was an Olympic class long distance runner in
the 1960s, and when a Doctor informed him
he had a life threatening decease disease he fled into the
wilderness. There
in the woods, alone, Joe eked out a survival on
natural foods. Eventually Joe relearned the arts of Ishi, sinew back
bow making, arrow-smithing, fire drill
technology, cordage making, brain tanning and of
coarse...flintknapping. As miracle have it, Joe lived out his death
sentence and is still practicing wilderness skills today.
Letter to John:
ISHI AND THE GOSPEL OF CRAZY HORSE
John thank you for the information. Since your reply I have read the
book CRAZY HORSE, by Pulitzer Prize winning author Larry McMurtry
(Lonsome Dove, The Last Picture Show). I noted an interesting
parallel with your Ishi theory. Crazy Horse was an Oglala who spent a
lot of time with the Brules (his mother's people), some time with the
Cheyenne, and, later in his life, at least a little time with the
Hunkpapas. Crazy Horse is a wonderful biography. Crazy Horse died
September 5, 1877, Crazy horse. Crazy Horse (Tashunkewitko) was born
on the Republican River about 1845. He was killed at Fort Robinson,
Nebraska, in 1877, He was held and bayoneted in front of his friends.
so that he lived barely thirty-three years. Ray, One problem with
questioning Ishi's "Yahiness" is that it does not really account for
the social situation in which the late Yahi and Yana lived. There are
several lines of both cultural and archaeological evidence that show
that the Yana speaking peoples of the Southern Cascades were under
serious territorial pressure as early AD 1500. One thesis on file at
Sac State reports a study of the abandonment of sites along the
margin of the Great Valley. The archaeology indicates that these
sites wereabandoned more or less simultaneously - in archaeological
time at least. Evidently the Patwin / Wintu were putting territorial
pressure on the Yana who responded by retreating in to the
inhospitable canyons of the Southern Cascades. The Yana also had
elements of a "men's" language and a "women's" language, which may
also indicate comparatively recent population movements, possibly
accompanied by warfare. Another line of evidence is in the manner in
which neighboring people such as the Northern Maidu and Konkow
regarded the Yana. The external view of the Yana was of raiders and
kidnappers who made off with women and children. Dixon for instance
notes the Yana as "...the much dreaded Kombo..." in discussing Maidu
geography.
The reality is that probably the Yana population was unsustainable
without "recruitment" from
non-Yana populations. We should probably pay close attention to
differentiating between culture
and biology when discussing the Yana. IMO the the biological Yana
were almost certainly in
decline well before the culture and language. So, arguing about
whether Ishi was "Yahi" or not is
meaningless. He was Yahi culturally and linguistically, regardless of
his descent. Consequently,
Jerry might not be wrong, but at the same time he may not be right
either. The issue may be
irrelevant. When you consider his knapping skills, you also need to
remember that in groups in Northern California the manufacture of
chipped stone was often more
or less a profession or specialty. Ishi's family may have lacked the
traditional
associations. Also, the Yana lived on the
western slopes of the Southern Cascades. There is very little
knappable stone of any quality in this region. Coarse basalt, dacite
and andesite are the commonest materials and some very poor obsidian
from up near Lassen, which came from country lying outside
traditional Yahi territory.
Further north the "source X" glass occurs. None of these would have
been available to Ishi.
During his lifetime the most available "lithic" materials would have
been discarded glass and ceramics along historic roads. The most
probable material that Ishi
would have used for projectiles would not have been stone at all.
Wood, for instance
Moutain Mahogany, would have been far more readily available and just
as useful. John
A man a bit like Crazy Horse in fortatude: jan 15, 1929, On April 4,
1968,M.L. King was shot by James Earl Ray while standing on the
balcony of the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. He was only 39
at the time of his death.
Jim Win's letter to me:
Read your article on Ishi knapping and liked it a lot. My technique
for notching is a bit different and keeps changing, but this is the
way I'm doing it
now. I posted my technique on Knappers-R-Us so I'm sending you a copy
of it. Except for the horseshoe nails I'm using and the optivisors, I
suspect the
old masters probably did something similar. later...jim OK, I've made
a few changes to my notching technique over the years, but here is
what seems to
work best lately. The most important thing is to get the point THIN
where you plan to notch it. If this area is too thick, it just wont
be possible to
get a narrow notch. The second tip is to get rid of your diamond
files! Until recently, I was hooked on those damn things and kept
using them to abrade
the notch before removing each flake. If you prepare the platform
properly, you wont need them. In fact, the flakes will release with
much LESS force being
applied and much LESS chance for breakage! OK, the point is thin, now
what? Use a
horshoe nail for all the notching. The horseshoe nails are nicely
tapered, but are kind of hard to mount in a handle. I have mine
mounted in a plastic
tip which in insertied in a ½" steel pipe. I took a plastic bolt and
cut it 1" long and heated the horseshoe nail red hot over the stove
and inserted
it into the plastic. Kept re-heating the nail till I could get it to
penetrate clear through the plastic. Once the hole was made in the
plastic it forms
a perfect mold of the nail, and this allows the nail to be replaced
quickly. It is important to get a good tight fit, or the nail will
bend. the plastic
fits into the steel pipe and is easily pulled out. Can change out the
nail in just a few seconds. Clear as mud right? OK, anyway, the
horshoe nail as it
comes out of the box is still too thick at the tip to make a really
narrow entry. Take a file and file it so its less than 1/32" thick.
Take your abrader
and round the tip of the nail a bit as you dont want it TOO sharp or
it will fold
back on you. You will know with experience how sharp is too sharp. DO
NOT ABRADE the edge of the point. You want the edge SHARP. Draw your
notches on the
point, take a straight edge and be sure they are straight across. Do
it on both sides. By the way, if you ever have to remove ink from the
point, use nail
polish remover, works great (just avoid getting it on your nails
). Now, put on your opti visors, even if your 20 years old and
have eyes like a hawk!
To work SMALL, you've got to SEE BIG. The placement of the tool tip
is critical. Place the tip of the nail on your drawn line and push
straight DOWN (90
degrees to the edge), NOT straight in. This is the initial entry, and
the narrowness of that entry is determined by how THIN you got the
point, and how
THIN the tip of your nail is. Examine the notch carefully and make
sure it is at least a tad bit thicker than your horshoe nail tip. If
it is not, widen
it a bit by just touching the tip of the nail along the sides of the
notch.
It is very important that the notch be kept just a bit larger than
the tip of your horsehoe nail tip. If it is not, the tip of the
horshoe nail will grip
the sides of the notch and bad things will happen for sure! OK, your
ready for the second flake removal from the opposite face. By the
way, I do all my
notching on a wooden backed rubber pad which has leather glued to it
for good feel. I hold the pad and point on my chest so my eyes are
maybe 8" or so
away and I can see everything clearly. The point must be held very
SECURELY on the pad so that there is no movement at all when the
flake releases. Otherwise,
the recoil upon release can even snap the tip of the point! OK, ready
to remove the second flake. Again, DO NOT ABRADE! Place the tip of
your nail in the
notch and push straight in to remove as long of a flake as possible.
The goal here is to get the flake to travel ¼" or so to further thin
the notching
area. OK, now remove another flake or two to get the platform turned
so it
is ready for removing a flake from the opposite side. The goal is to
bevel the notch to bring the surface up to the opposite face, just as
in normal pressure
flaking. Now flip the point over and push straight in with the tip of
your pressure flaker to turn that platform even more. This part is
kind of hard to
explain, you probably got to see it. But the idea is that you want to
get the platform as close to the edge you are flaking as possible.
Now you are ready
to remove another long flake. For each of these long flake removals
remember one thing, the longer that flake travels, the easier the
next flake will be
to remove. Also, at about this time, I switch to a regular
unsharpened horshoe nail. I have 2 notching tools, one sharp, one not
as sharp. You need the
duller tip to get those longer flakes or the tip of the nail will
fold. If it does, replace it. OK, you've removed another long flake.
Again, remove one
or two additional flakes to turn the platform again, flip the point
over,
futher turn the platform with the tip, and prepare to run another
long flake. Again, be agressive and try to remove a LONG flake. The
removal of a small
flake will make it almost impossible to get the platform prepared for
the opposite face. When this happens, the platform usually gets
rounded out making
it almost impossible to get a flake removed from the opposite face.
Then there is no choice but to get out the diamond file and start
filing, and filing,
and filing! That gets old really quick. If done correctly, you wont
need a diamond file at all! Once that diamond file comes out, you
usually need it for
every flake after that. So avoid abrading the platforms, just turn
them so they are flush with the face your are removing the long
flakes from. The tip
of your horshoe nail is not resting on the edge of the platform
anyway, it is closer to the centerline, so no abrading is necessary.
I stress all this
because I learned it the hard way! OK, as the notch gets further in
to the point
you may want to expand it to resemble a tear drop. As the notch gets
wider, you will be removing larger and more massive flakes. Remember,
just keep the
tip of the nail a bit smaller than the notch, but thick enough to
remove a massive flake. As the notch gets really wide, as in E
notches, you will need
to remove 2 flakes side by side. On E notches it is necessary to have
the biface REALLY thin because the notches travel in so far. If this
is all unclear,
catch me at a knap-in sometime and I can demonstate it for you. I
plan to be a Quartzite a few days in early January. Good luck....jim
THANKS TO: Cheryl Fogle ,Ph.D. candidate in anthropology, University
of New Mexico
Flint knapping Jim Winn, Dr. Hugo Nami- Argintine, Dr, Errett
Callahan , Mr Ishi and a cast of thousands!!!
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burrill, Richard
1990 Ishi, America's Last Stone Age Indian. The Anthro
Company. Sacramento, CA.
Callahan, Errett
1979 The Basics of Biface Knapping In The Eastern Fluted Point
Tradition. A
Manual for Flintknappers And Lithic Analysts. Archaeology of Eastern
North America, Vol. 7. Pp. 1-180. ed. Brennan, New York.
Callahan, Errett
1999 Ishi Sticks, Iceman Picks and Good For Nothing Things. Bulletin
of Primitive
Technology No. 18 Pp. 60-68 .ed. Wescott, Idaho.
Crabtree, Donald
1972 An Introduction to Flintworking. Occasional Papers, Idaho
University
Museum.
Harwood, Joyce Ann
2000 Walking With Ishi. Bulletin of Primitive Technology (No. 20).Pp.
84-87 .ed. Wescott, Idaho.
Harwood, Ray
1986 California Points, Ancient Man Information Exchange, Vol. 2
Tekakawitha
Institute of Ancient Man, Woodbridge, Virginia. Pp. 4-32. ed
Porcelli. Virginia.
Harwood, Ray
1988 Flintknapping Bottle Glass. 20TH Century Lithics. Mound Builder
Books,
Branson, MO. ed. Waldof, Missouri. Pp. 45-47.
Harwood, Ray
1999 History Of Modern Flintknapping. World Flintknapping Society.
Occasional Papers #2.
Harwood, Ray
2001 Points of Light, Dreams of Glass : An Introduction into Vitrum
Technology.
Bulletin of Primitive Technology (No. 21).Pp. 24-36 .ed. Wescott,
Idaho.
Kroeber, Theodora
1961
Ishi In Two Worlds
University Of California Press.
Muto, Guy R.
1971 Technological Analysis of Early Stages in the Manufacture of
Lithic Artifacts. Masters Thesis, Washington State University.
Nelson, Nels C,
1916 Flint Working by Ishi. In Holmes, Anniversary Volume:
Anthropological Essays Presented to William Henry Holms. F.W Hodge,
ed. Pp. 397-402. Washington D.C.
Nami, Hugo
1984 Some References to Glass-Chipping Technology in Argentina,
Lithic
Technology, Vol. 13, No.1
Nami, Hugo
1991 Callahan's Clovis Production Model: A Comment Derived From
Bement's
Article. Plains Anthropologist. Journal of the Plains Anthropological
Society.
Newcomer, Mark H.
1971 Some Quantitative Experiments on Handaxe Manufacture.
World Archaeologist 3 (2): 85-94.
Ibarra, Raoel, and John Wellman
1988 Folsom Fluting: An Aboriginal Approach. 20th Century Lithics.
Mound
Builder Books. Branson MO.. ed. Waldof, Missouri. Pp. 29-36.
Patten, Bob
1999 Old Tools - New Eyes. Stone Dagger Publications, Denver,
Colorado.
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